Warm Wonderful Wise Wool

STARTING FROM THE BASICS

The World of Wool 

According to Textile Exchange, Sheep wool is the most common animal fiber used in the fashion and textile industry. 

As you probably know, wool is a natural fibre that comes primarily from the fleece of sheep, though it can also be harvested from animals like alpacas, llamas, goats, and even camels. Remember that cashmere and mohair come from goats, not sheep! 

Not all wool is the same, though. From sturdy, lanolin-rich sheep wool that you might find in old itchy jumpers, to luxuriously soft merino, cashmere, and alpaca, wool is a whole family of fibres that vary in softness, warmth, and durability depending on the animal and how the fibre is processed. At its core, wool, being an animal product, is made of a protein called keratin, which is structured in a way that makes the fibres naturally crimped, elastic, and surprisingly technical. Lanolin, btw, is a fatty substance found naturally on sheep's wool - not on goats or other animals - it is very oily at the start, which is the reason why it is naturally water repellent! 

Like any natural fibre, we love wool because regenerative agriculture principles can be used in raising the animals, therefore actively restoring ecosystems, focusing on soil health, carbon storage, and biodiversity protection. Fibre production becomes a restorative practice that actively tries to leave the soil better than it initially started. It is essential for there to be enough space for animals to graze, allowing grass to grow, and avoiding imports of environmentally destructive soy, which is very common. Some scientists think that it might be the most sustainable material out there; however, regenerative livestock systems remain a minority globally, especially in wool supply chains dominated by extensive grazing or industrialised management. 

We have interviewed a range of experts on this topic, including Marco Rodigari, wool expert and consultant for the Woolmark certification, Cynthia Hathaway, founder of the Wool March movement, and Martina Tomas from Farm Manufacture, a regenerative Cashmere project 100% made in Veneto, Italy. Beyond quotes, their knowledge is blended into the article, for which we would like to thank them very much! 

A quick note on wool history 

Wool currently accounts for 0.9% of the world’s global fibre market. As of 2021 around 1.2 billion sheep produced around 2 million tonnes of raw wool for home and clothing textiles. 

This wasn’t the case historically. Wool used to represent a major percentage, estimated at over 20%, of global fibre use, before cotton majorly expanded. This shift is closely linked to the Industrial Revolution and the use of slaves in the US, making this transition away from wool an even sadder story. 

Today, wool is often replaced by fossil-fuel fibres, such as acrylic, nylon and polyester, which represent 60% of global fibres, and are not recyclable, not as warm, and not as durable. Wool is a renewable fiber that biodegrades in both land and marine environments, whereas fossil fuel-based fabrics can persist in the environment for hundreds of years. This has led to the "Wear Wool, Not Fossil Fuel" Campaign by the Woolmark Company. 

Wool Classification based on technical details and purpose 

Marco Rodigari has incredible knowledge of supply chains, clothing construction, and the applicability of materials. He explains that “wool is durable, natural, and breathable, but unfortunately, designers are lacking knowledge on this material and its potential”

Marco explains that the quality and end use of wool are closely tied to fibre diameter, which is measured in microns. Finer wools (typically under 19 microns, such as merino) are softer, lighter, and more flexible, making them ideal for garments worn close to the skin, including breathable summer base layers that help regulate temperature without trapping heat. Yes, we said summer! 

As micron counts increase, wool becomes coarser and more robust, better suited for outerwear, knitwear, and structured pieces where durability and insulation matter more than next-to-skin comfort. 

How wool is processed also plays a role in its performance: combed wool (worsted) uses longer, aligned fibres to create smoother, lighter, and more breathable fabrics, while carded wool (woollen) uses shorter, randomly oriented fibres that result in loftier, warmer, and more insulating textiles. 

Together, micron count and processing methods determine not just how wool feels, but also where it performs best, making wool an amazing material for very different purposes. 

THE CHALLENGES

The biggest concerns around wool come down to how the animals are treated and the environmental footprint of raising them. 

Climate Change 

Like all herbivorous grazers, sheep naturally produce methane during digestion, a greenhouse gas with a strong warming effect. When wool is sourced responsibly, many of these issues can be minimised, but they’re important factors to keep in mind when evaluating the sustainability of the material.

Land use is a major issue, with scary data clearly available on CircumFauna, a project that is aimed at highlighting the importance of shifting away from animal-based fibres. According to their Shear Destruction: Wool, Fashion and the Biodiversity Crisis report, habitat loss tied to land-use changes, including deforestation and land degradation, is the greatest threat to biodiversity, and just in Australia, the wool industry uses 20% of agricultural land. 

Both land clearing and grazing non-native animals lead to severe land degradation, including soil erosion and desertification. Natural grazing systems should ensure that they don’t degrade entire ecosystems to grow feedstock. Intensive farming is certainly never a solution, as it is destructive, as extensively proven through the production of meat.

Circumfauna pushes wool over cotton; however, we believe that it would be a lot more useful to compare wool to plastic fibres, which represent the majority of all clothing textiles. This report is based on intensive wool production, mostly in China, the US, and Australia, which is very different from the European shepherding systems that Cynthia from the Wool March advocates for. Carbon sequestration claims in grazing systems are still debated and highly context-specific. As always, we go back to the concept of slowing down, being more mindful of local circumstances, and producing a lot less but better. 

IWTO also talks about biogenic carbon, and how it is part of nature’s ongoing carbon cycle, absorbed by plants through photosynthesis and returned to the earth. To us, it seems logical that fossil carbon that is adds excess CO₂, CH4, particulates and many more pollutants is considered differently. 

LCAs can always be influenced by allocating different amounts of methane to meat VS wool, taking different assumptions around product life, relying on different data sources, considering different solutions for processing and washing the fabric, etc. Common sense, respecting surrounding environments, and adapting to the solutions that make the most sense in a specific time and place, are rules that often work better than data that is easy to manipulate.

Meat by-product? Co-product? Waste? 

A key challenge to having LCAs that are not manipulable is behind assumptions that emissions from animals to wool or meat. It is essential therefore to understand the main purpose of why the animal was raised. 

We love the fact that we have found a website called Sheep 101, which is very in line with our Denim 101 and Fashion Supply Chain 101 resources. According to them, sheep can be considered multi-purpose animals, raised for their meat, milk, wool, and skins. The primary focus varies by region and breed; meat (lamb/mutton) is dominant in many places like the US, while dairy (cheese) is huge in Europe/Mediterranean (think Feta, Roquefort, and Pecorino), and wool is a significant product globally, though often a byproduct or secondary focus for meat breeds, with specialized breeds excelling in single areas (like Merino).

Modern-day farming tends to focus on one main product to increase efficiency, putting wool behind the scenes in many cases. 

Wool is often discarded or burned by farmers when its low market value doesn't cover shearing costs, it's of poor quality, or processors have full warehouses, leading to waste. Cashmere, Merino, and Mohair farms tend to only focus on wool, which means that animals are not milked. 

If production was less focused on extreme optimisation of outputs, but rather on optimisation of resource use, different industries could coordinate. Our current model leads to having more farms (and emissions) than we actually need. 

Animal and Shearers welfare 

As for any situation in which animals are involved, it is essential to consider animal welfare. There is a huge range in the way in which animals are treated, from farms where animals are given a name, fed only local natural grass, and kept in their ideal environment, versus animals that are treated horribly, for example, during shearing and transport. 

Investigators have documented systemic cruelty in major production areas such as Australia, and because shearers are typically paid by volume rather than by the hour, the process is rushed, leading to rough handling, cuts, and injuries to the sheep. As always, when things are done too fast and under pressure, no human or animal rights are respected. We always go back to the many levels of “fast” in fast fashion.   

Most Merino wool used in the global clothing industry is produced in Australia. Lambs reared for this fine wool are susceptible to ‘blowfly’ infestation, where the flies lay their eggs in the wrinkles in the rear quadrant of the animal. Producers use a method called ‘mulesing’, which they believe prevents flies from attacking. The skin around the lambs’ buttocks is cut off, usually without the use of anaesthesia or pain relief. It’s used as a quick and cheap way to prevent flystrike but causes excruciating pain, shock, and trauma to the animals. 

We had no idea that Merinos had been selected in Australia for their fine wool production, but the climate makes it an unsuitable animal to breed there, making mulesing a man-made solution to a man-made issue. 

Thanks to Martina from Alpago Farm Manufacture, however, we know that things can be different. With her husband, she takes care of her 30 goats every day, feeding them with fresh grass, or with grass that they cut during the summer, making sure that every animal is comfortable, ensuring that lambs stay with their mothers for the first 18 months, and take at least 2h for combing each goat to ensure that they aren’t put under stress. 

Farmers & Designers distance 

In systems where wool is not a true co-product, it is seen as an undervalued burden. There isn’t a system in place to help farmers increase their income through wool, and it is considered a dangerous animal waste. In Italy, for example, when raw wool is not sent for processing, it must be disposed of as special waste (category 3), as required by current regulations, which strictly govern both the logistics and disposal methods. This results in a significant and often unsustainable burden for farmers. 

According to our colleague Simon Ferrigno, in his article around a conversation with George Boden, a Derbyshire land manager and former sheep farmer  wool prices today are roughly the same as they were in the mid-1970s, despite decades of rising costs. Unlike most industries, farmers have almost no power to set their own prices — they are at the mercy of fluctuating market rates driven by retailers and large traders. Consumers don’t understand the difference between high-quality ingredients and processed foods, with many shoppers expecting fresh meat to cost the same as cheap products like chicken nuggets. Again and again - we keep finding similarities between the food and fashion industries! 

We need better public understanding of what farmers actually face, stay curious readers! 

Wise management of sheep pastures, however, encourages soil and forage biodiversity, fighting erosion and contributing to stopping the spread of wildfires. Promoting the use of wool in a circular economy system means reducing waste, generating new economic opportunities and supporting those who protect inland, marginal areas. 

It doesn’t make sense that the worlds of designers and farmers never meet: the choice that a designer makes, can have a huge impact on entire human and environmental ecosystems. 

As we’ve been told by multiple people, every sheep has their personality, and you should really take the chance to meet and get to know them :) It will bring you much joy and purpose behind your work!

WOOL PROJECTS WE LOVE - IN FOCUS 

The Wool March 

Cynthia, the founder of Wool March, didn’t set out as a wool expert. When she began working with wool in 2017, she admits she “didn’t know anything about it.” What pulled her in was curiosity about the full chain - who is behind the material and where it comes from - which led her to research farms and eventually map the wool trail itself. What she found was a system far more complex than expected, and a fibre that is both extraordinary and deeply undervalued. Despite its qualities, wool has been pushed aside while polyester and acrylic continue to receive surprisingly positive environmental ratings. For Cynthia, this raised an urgent question: why did wool disappear, and how do we bring this knowledge back?

That question became the foundation of the Wool March. Cynthia is especially committed to wool that comes from shepherding systems, which she sees as the most culturally significant and ecologically sound form of wool production. Shepherds exist all over the world, but many are in crisis - their expertise is overlooked, their wool barely paid for, and their role in maintaining ecosystems is largely ignored. 

Shepherding, defined by mobile grazing, is an ancient practice that supports soil health, biodiversity, and landscape management through seasonal movement and deep ecological knowledge. Yet it is also political: shepherds rely on the right to move across land, a right increasingly restricted by infrastructure, borders, and policy. Cynthia points out that the problems shepherds face - restricted movement, environmental destruction, loss of local systems - are problems society as a whole is grappling with too.

The Wool March itself is both symbolic and practical: a 400-kilometre walk over 40 days through Germany, the Netherlands, and Belgium, alongside shepherds and their flocks. Along the way, Cynthia collects stories, plants the sheep feed on, and commitments from policymakers, researchers, and mayors - assembled into what she calls a living herbarium press kit to support a formal declaration aimed at the EU. 

She is clear about the urgency: new textile laws are coming, practices are disappearing, and current life-cycle assessments fail to reflect the reality of shepherding systems. Shepherd wool (dense, strong, and highly durable) comes from breeds selected for landscape work rather than meat efficiency, yet it is lumped into flawed data and poor environmental ratings. 

Cynthia believes that reconnecting people with animals, materials, and local knowledge is essential. Our cities were built on herding paths, she reminds us, and many children today have never even seen a sheep. If we want resilient systems, we need to rely again on living ones - made up of animals, people, and the landscapes they move through together.

Alpago Farm Manufacture - Happy Cashmere 

Most cashmere in your wardrobe probably comes from China from extremely large and industrialised farms. Farm Manufacture does something different. Nestled in the Alpago valley in Veneto, Italy,  every decision made about their flock of cashmere goats starts and ends with one question: are they comfortable? 

The 30 goats are never sheared: Martina and Alessio wait for the precise moment each spring when the undercoat begins to naturally shed — too early, and the fibre won't release, too late and it mats. Each animal yields somewhere between 200 and 500 grams, with around 200–250 grams being typical. Of that, 60 to 70% is discarded — the outer guard hair, which has a higher micron count and simply isn't cashmere. That leftover fibre isn't wasted, though: Farm Manufacture is collaborating with a local artisan who is turning it into felted pieces, including a felted cashmere hat. Nothing is treated as a byproduct. 

The goats themselves each have a name that is always a mountain, a lake, or a Dolomite pass, and their entire family tree is documented through a genetic registry built in collaboration with an Italian university. This is what traceability looks like when it's taken seriously: not a certificate, but a genealogy. Martina and Alessio still work part-time jobs to make the project work, it is clear that they have an extremely strong passion for this. 

The supply chain is short by design and anchored in the Veneto region. Spinning happens in Vicenza; the fibre is separated by machine to isolate the finest part. Production volumes are tiny — genuinely tiny, a little over a beret's worth of cashmere per goat per year — and the Sport line, which blends local alpaca with the cashmere, is made to order. The Luxury line is 100% Alpago Cashmere, entirely handcrafted. 

Goats need space, and lots of it, to ensure that they eat fresh, local, sustainable food. Farm Manufacture moves slowly on purpose, keeping the herd small so the land can absorb the pressure. Nearly ten hectares are dedicated to hay-making and grazing, with rotations managed to protect both soil health and the animals from parasites. In summer, they make their own hay; in winter, that's what the goats eat. A community of people around them that call them to keep their gardens and terrains clean has grown. This is regenerative agriculture that takes into account space limitations and natural boundaries. It is land stewardship that the market hasn't yet figured out how to price.

When asked about their current issues, they told us that since 2017, wolves have re-entered the territory, forcing the team to implement a full anti-predator strategy -  electric fencing first, then guardian dogs, which are all expenses. 

They've won two awards from the Chamber of Commerce of Belluno and Treviso, and two project grants, including one for the Lessinia Sheperd and Lagorai dog breed and one for their cashmere work. The recognition is real. 

What Farm Manufacture is building is not just a slow fashion brand but a living archive of genetics, of land use, of traditional fibre knowledge. Two other farms have since started breeding their goats, inheriting not just the animals but the values and the techniques. And the product lasts a lifetime. Our reflection after visiting their project and touching their products is: this is what luxury should be. We understand that the volumes and costs are not accessible to everyone, but we strongly believe that this is the real meaning of quality and premium: supporting a dream project becomes true.  

DESIGNING WOOL BACK INTO OUR SYSTEMS 

Oldest but newest material: innovation around wool 

Wool is one of those rare materials that quietly does a lot of work for you. It’s natural, breathable, and surprisingly tough, with insulation and temperature-regulating abilities built right into the fibre. Because it responds to changes in your body heat, wool helps keep you warm when the air is cold and comfortably cool when things warm up - no tech required.

It also resists odours, and shrinks less than most fibres (think about it, you don’t need to iron wool), which means wool garments don’t need constant washing to stay fresh. Fewer trips to the laundry save both water and energy, and they help your clothes last longer, too.

A substitute for fossil fibres?

Wool has benefits that synthetic fibres often struggle to match. Last but not least, when wool is not mixed with acrylic or polyester, it’s also biodegradable - which is extremely rare for performance fabrics - this makes it useful for everything from winter coats to athletic base layers. 

Thanks to research and development carried out in partnership with the Luna Rossa Prada Pirelli sailing team, water-resistant Merino wool fabrics will be added to the uniforms of the iconic gondoliers of Venice. The Merino wool enables high breathability and moisture absorption whilst providing thermal insulation for superior comfort and performance, which is essential while sailing across oceans. 

Speaking of the sea - have you heard of wool swimwear? Are you surprised? We were too, but actually, we have learnt that wool is naturally water repellent, so it makes complete sense that brands have started using it for colourful swimwear, check Sheep Inc products to believe it.  

Of course, wool has its limitations. It can be more expensive than plant-based or synthetic alternatives, sometimes itchy depending on fibre diameter, and prone to shrinking or felting if not cared for properly. Ethical concerns also arise around animal welfare and land use, which vary by region and producer. Understanding wool means recognising both its remarkable natural engineering and the responsibilities tied to sourcing it well.

Recycled Wool 

Wool operates differently to most materials we work with in fashion. It is a protein fibre, which means that at the very end of its life, it returns to the soil, breaking down biologically and feeding the land it once came from. But long before it reaches that point, it can be mechanically recycled through a process called garnetting — shredded back into raw fiber, respun into new yarn, with no harsh chemicals — a practice that towns like Prato, Italy have been doing for centuries. 

Check out the Rifo brand and project, which has started collecting old wool products around Italy to turn them into beautiful new pieces. Tricot is another great one.

Much of the original character stays intact with recycled wool. And what makes wool especially compelling within a circular system is not just that it can be recycled, but that it rarely needs to be recycled quickly. It lasts. It stretches, recovers, and keeps going. And every year, sheep grow a new fleece, making wool genuinely renewable in a way that most materials simply are not. It is one of the few fibers where the full lifecycle - from land to garment and back to land - can actually close. That feels worth paying attention to.

Limitations to using more wool - is it the system? 

Wool is currently used less than it should - and here we would like to bring an amazing quote by Marco, who explained why. 

“The issues that Wool is facing are the core issues of the fashion industry. Wool is slow, it doesn’t follow collection cycles of 8 weeks, because animals need time to grow it. Wool’s cost is directly linked to the well-being of farmers, in the same way that clothes should take into account the well-being of factory employees. Wool is currently considered expensive - but it is not - the perception of how much clothing should cost is too low.“

We can’t ignore it, we always go back to the same issues: speed, overproduction, and cost inequality. 

Certifications and standards 

In today’s fashion world, there are a handful of wool-specific certifications that help brands and consumers navigate through confusing information.. 

The most iconic of these is the Woolmark certification, a quality-assurance trademark that has been around since the 1960s. Products bearing the Woolmark logo have been independently tested for things like fibre content, colourfastness, durability and wash performance, giving shoppers confidence that the garment really is what it claims to be - whether that’s 100 % pure wool or a carefully tested wool blend. The Woolmark program has also expanded with sub-brands like Woolmark Recycled, which certifies products containing at least 20 % recycled wool while still meeting high-performance standards, reflecting a push toward circularity in wool products. Marco explains that even though some certifications don’t strictly include animal welfare standards, poorly treated animals produce poor-quality wool. Think about it, when we are stressed, we lose our hair; it’s the same concept!

The Responsible Wool Standard (RWS) is a voluntary, independent certification that looks at animal welfare and land-management practices throughout the supply chain, and requires third-party audits to ensure traceability back to the flock. 

Beyond RWS, there are more niche or fibre-specific standards such as ZQ Merino, which emphasises ethical treatment, fibre quality and environmental stewardship for Merino wool, and the Responsible Mohair Standard (RMS) for mohair production.

Like most animal-based and natural fibers, there is no concrete answer to what is “best”. It is highly dependent on the local contexts in which it is grown, as well as the specific use of it. For more into the world of fibers, check out our Supply Chain 101 resource and stay tuned for more of our Starting from the Basics series.

Until next time friends, always be curious and stay diligent xx